Wrt my ratings below: Ordering is mostly good but occasionally switches to thematic rather than chronological ordering which isn't always decypherable - a few specifically Old Russian changes are discussed in the Late Proto-Slavonic section which leaves ambiguity about where they sit in relation to other Old Russian changes; but it's consistent enough that I've noted when ordering is lost. Exhaustivity seems to be pretty good but some minor changes are probably excluded for simplicity's sake since it's an "introduction" rather than a change-by-change list. Detail is good with environments almost always specified (although sometimes 90 pages later in an unrelated section), but then there's also a few changes like "simplification or reorganisation of unacceptable clusters (usually of falling sonority)" or "assimilation of voice in obstruents" without going into any specifics. Consensus is basically as good as it gets. Transcription of the changes themselves I'm confident with, but the Slavicist/slightly outdated IPA notation isn't super clear especially with a distinction between palatals with <’> and palatals with <'> which are sometimes interchangeable and sometimes not; I think the former is "(alveolo-) palatal" and the latter is "soft" but it's never explained.
For now I've treated each set of reconstructed phonemes separately, but I could probably condense it into one list without losing too much information.
Reference: Cubberley, P. "Russian: A Linguistic Introduction". Cambridge University Press 2002.
Transcribed by: Darren
Reviewed by: (none)
Ordering ★★☆
Exhaustivity ★★☆
Detail ★★☆
Consensus ★★★
Transcription ★★☆
Early Proto-Slavonic to Late Proto-Slavonic
Reconstructed phonemes for Early Proto-Slavonic:
| Symbol | Likely IPA | Notes |
| *p | [p] | |
| *t | [t] | |
| *k | [k] | |
| *b | [b] | |
| *d | [d] | |
| *g | [ɡ] | |
| *m | [m] | |
| *n | [n] | |
| *s | [s] | |
| *x | [x~ʃ] | "others believe its initial result was [š]" |
| *v | [v] | |
| *z | [z] | |
| *j | [j~ʝ] | listed as a palatal fricative, but probably a semi-vowel |
| *ɣ | [ɣ] | dialectal variant of *g |
| *w | [w~β] | dialectal variants of *v |
| *r | [r] | realisation not discussed, assumed to be a trill |
| *l | [l] | |
| *ĭ | [i] | |
| *ī | [iː] | |
| *ŭ | [u] | |
| *ū | [uː] | |
| *ₑă | [æ] | listed as a front low vowel |
| *ₑā | [æː] | |
| *ₒă | [ɒ] | described as a "low back rounded vowel" |
| *ₒā | [ɒː] | |
| *ₒăi̯ | [ɒi̯] | |
| *ₑăi̯ | [æi̯] | |
| *ₒău̯ | [ɒu̯] | |
| *ₑău̯ | [æu̯] |
Suprasegmental features:
- Contrastive ("free") stress
- "Tone/pitch" consisting of "automatic acute on long vowels; diphthongs may have acute or circumflex"; "acute" describes "rising" and "circumflex" describes "non-rising".
*k g x → *k' g' x' /_{*ĭ ī ₑă ₑā}, {*ĭ ī ₑă ₑā}_ ("fronting of the velars in the vicinity [...] of a front vowel")
*Cj → *C’
*kt gt → *t’
*k’ g’ x’ → *č’ dž’,ž’ š’ ("the results of *g' depend on the stop or fricative nature of this phoneme; the stop *g' gives *dž' [...] the fricative *ɣ' gives *ž'")
*C → Ø /_#
"simplification or reorganisation of unacceptable clusters (usually of falling sonority)"
*ₒă → *o
*ₒā → *a (possibly "via *oá")
*ₑă → *e
*ₑā → *ě (possibly "via *eá")
*ĭ → *ь
*ī → *i
*ŭ → *ъ
*ū → *y (possibly "via *uí")
*oi̯ → *ě, i
*ai̯ → *i (through *e)
*ou̯ → *u
*eu̯ → *(j)u
*{e ь} {m n} → *ę
*{o ъ} {m n} → *ǫ
*k g x → *c' dz',z' s',š' /_{ě i} ("the variants for *g [...] probably initially related to the stop versus fricative nature of *g)
*k g x → *c' dz',z' s',š' /i(N)_ !_{i,y,u,o} (subject to "analogical levelling" by which palatals would appear preceding *i y u o if elsewhere in the paradigm a different vowel followed the consonant)
*u ъ o ǫ a ě → *ü ь e ǫ̈ ä a /C'_ (for *a "a fronted *ä was the result in most areas [...] however, the ultimate result in all areas was a reflex of *a" merging with *ě in that position; *ъ o also merge with *ь e here but *u ǫ remain separate from *i ę)
*V [+tone] → *V [–tone] /_ unstressed
*V [+rising tone] → *V [–long][+rising tone] ("the opposition [...] being between 'short + rising' and 'long + non-rising', while the remaining short vowels [...] were automatically non-rising")
Late Proto-Slavonic to Old Russian
Reconstructed phonemes for Late Proto-Slavonic:
| Symbol | Likely IPA | Notes |
| *p | [p] | |
| *t | [t] | |
| *t’ | [tʲ~c] | listed as a palatal stop |
| *k | [k] | |
| *b | [b] | |
| *d | [d] | |
| *d’ | [dʲ~ɟ] | listed as a palatal stop |
| *g | [ɡ] | |
| *m | [m] | |
| *n | [n] | |
| *n’ | [nʲ~ɲ] | listed as palatal |
| *s | [s] | |
| *s' | [sʲ] | "regional or temporal variant" |
| *š’ | [ɕ~ʃ] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| *x | [x] | |
| *v | [v] | |
| *z | [z] | |
| *z' | [zʲ] | "regional or temporal variant" |
| *ž’ | [ʑ~ʒ] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| *ɣ | [ɣ] | dialectal variant of *g |
| *w | [w~β] | dialectal variant of *v |
| *j | [j] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| *c' | [tsʲ] | |
| *č’ | [t͡ɕ~t͡ʃ] | listed as a palatal affricate |
| *dz' | [dzʲ] | "regional or temporal variant" |
| *dž’ | [d͡ʑ~d͡ʒ] | listed as a palatal affricate, "regional or temporal variant" |
| *r | [r] | realisation not discussed, assumed to be a trill |
| *r’ | [rʲ] | |
| *l | [l] | |
| *l’ | [lʲ~ʎ] | listed as a palatal liquid |
| *i | [i] | |
| *y | [ɨ] | |
| *u | [u] | |
| *ь | [ĭ] | |
| *ъ | [ŭ~ə] | given as [ŭ~ə]; "rounding was not strong" |
| *e | [ɛ] | listed as "mid-low" |
| *ę | [ɛ̃] | listed as "mid-low" |
| *o | [ɔ~ʌ] | listed as "mid-low"; ]"rounding was not strong" |
| *ǫ | [ɔ̃] | listed as "mid-low" |
| *ě | [æ~i̯a~i̯æ~ɛ~e] | described as [ä], "a low front unrounded vowel" but possibly also a "rising diphthong of the [ia]/[iä] type" or "shifted to a higher position" |
| *a | [a] | |
| *ü | [y?] | fronted allophone of *u following palatal consonants |
| *ǫ̈ | [œ̃?] | fronted allophone of *ǫ following palatal consonants |
| *ä | [æ?] | fronted allophone of *a following palatal consonants, but distinct from *ě in some dialects |
Suprasegmental features:
- Contrastive ("free") stress
- "Quantity" consisting of "automatic short on *a, *y and former short (*o, *e, *ъ, *ь); free on rest"
- "Tone/pitch" consisting of "double opposition between new short acute [rising] and former long circumflex [non-rising]".
*t' st' → č' šč'
*d' zd' → dž' ("then mostly > ž') ždž'
*dz' → z'
*g → g ("north")
*g → ɣ ("south")
*v → v ("north")
*v → β, w ("south")
*ę ǫ → ä u (*ä "later merged with a")
*tl dl → l
*oRC → RoC /_[non-rising pitch]
*oRC → RaC /_[rising pitch]*a ä → jä /#_
*ě → je /#_
*e → o /#_
*o → wo /#_ (with "neo-acute" pitch)
*o → o /_ under "neo-acute" pitch (note that *o was [ɔ] and retained as such elsewhere)
contrastive pitch lost
*oRC → RoC /#_[non-rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*oRC → RaC /#_[rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*CoRC → CoˈRoC /_[rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*CoRC → ˈCoRoC /_[non-rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*CeRC → CeˈReC /_[rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*CeRC → ˈCeReC /_[non-rising pitch] (ordering not noted)
*p’ b’ m’ v’ → *pl’ bl’ ml’ vl’ (ordering not noted)
Old Russian to Modern Russian
Transcription of phonemes for Old Russian:
| Symbol | Likely IPA | Notes |
| p | [p] | |
| t | [t] | |
| k | [k] | |
| b | [b] | |
| d | [d] | |
| g | [ɡ] | Northern Old Russian corresponding to Southern Old Russian ɣ |
| m | [m] | |
| n | [n] | |
| n' | [nʲ~ɲ] | "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| s | [s] | |
| s' | [sʲ~ɕ] | "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| š’ | [ɕ~ʃ] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| x | [x] | |
| v | [v~β~w] | dialectal variants |
| z | [z] | |
| z' | [zʲ] | "regional or temporal variant" |
| ž’ | [ʑ~ʒ] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| ɣ | [ɣ] | Southern Old Russian corresponding to Northern Old Russian g |
| j | [j] | listed as a palatal fricative |
| c' | [t͡sʲ~t͡ɕ] | "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| č’ | [t͡ɕ~t͡ʃ] | listed as a palatal affricate |
| dz' | [dzʲ~d͡ʑ] | early Old Russian only, "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| dž’ | [d͡ʑ~d͡ʒ] | early Old Russian only, listed as a palatal affricate |
| r | [r] | realisation not discussed, assumed to be a trill |
| r' | [rʲ~?] | "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| l | [l] | |
| l' | [lʲ~ʎ] | "may have still been palatal at the early stage" |
| i | [i] | |
| y | [ɨ] | |
| u | [u] | |
| ь | [ĭ] | |
| ъ | [ŭ~ə] | |
| e | [e] | |
| o | [o] | |
| ɛ | [ɛ] | |
| ɔ | [ɔ] | |
| a | [a] | |
| ü | [y?] | fronted allophone of *u following palatal consonants |
| ä | [æ?] | fronted allophone of *a following palatal consonants |
| i̯e u̯o | [i̯e u̯o] | "regional variants high e, o" |
Suprasegmental features:
- Contrastive ("free") stress
r’ l’ n’ s’ z’ → r' l' n' s' z'
c’ dz’ → c dz (c = IPA /t͡s/)
dz' → z'
dž’ → ž’
ъ ь → Ø /$_, _$ (where $ is a syllable containing a non-yer vowel)
ъ ь → Ø /{ъ ь}(C...C)_ (alternating yers are lost)
ъ ь → ɔ ɛ (elsewhere)
o → ɔ (except in non-standard dialects)
e → ɛ (except in non-standard dialects)
{i y} → i~y ("[becoming] allophones of the same phoneme, the first following soft [palatalised], the second following hard [non-palatalised] consonants")
ä ü → a u /C'_
o a u → ö ä ü /C'_C' (allophonic)
b d dz g v z z' ž’ → p t c k f s s' š' /_#
"assimilation of voice in obstruents" (conditions not described)
ɛ → ɔ /_[+stress]C[–soft]
{a ɔ} {ɛ i} → V₁ V₂ /_[–stress] ("fusion of /a/ and /o/ and /e/ and /i/ in [unstressed] position; actual results vary greatly by dialect")
ě → ɛ (merger with ɛ; "Central Russian dialects only")
